Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or Oryza glaberrima (African rice). As a whole grain cereal, it is the most consumed staple food for most of the world's human population, especially in Asia. This is agricultural commodity with the third highest world production (rice, 741.5 million tons in 2014), after cane (1.9 billion tons) and corn (1.0 billion tons).
Because considerable portions of sugarcane and maize are used for purposes other than human consumption, rice is the most important grain associated with human nutrition and caloric intake, providing more than a fifth of the calories consumed by humans worldwide. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally.
Rice, monocots, is usually grown as an annual crop, although in the tropics it can survive as an annual crop and can produce swamps for up to 30 years. Rice cultivation is particularly suitable for countries and regions with low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is labor intensive to cultivate and requires plenty of water. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on steep hills or mountains with the use of a central system that controls water. Although its parent species originated in Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade and exports have made it a commonplace in many cultures around the world.
The traditional method of growing rice is to flood the temporary fields, or after, arrange the young seedlings. This simple method requires careful planning and servicing of waterlogging and dewatering, but reduces the growth of weeds and less powerful pests that do not have submerged growth conditions, and inhibits pests. Although flooding is not mandatory for rice cultivation, all other irrigation methods require higher weed and pest control efforts during different growth periods and approaches to soil fertilization.
Wild rice names are commonly used for genus species Zizania and Porteresia , both wild and pet, although the term may also be used for primitive or untreated varieties of > Oryza .
Video Rice
Etimologi
First used in English in the mid-13th century, the word "rice" is derived from the ancient French ris , originally from Italian
The origin of the Greek word is unclear. Sometimes held from the Tamil word ( arisi ), or rather Old Tamil arici . However, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it be borrowed from the Proto-Dravidian descendants * wariÃÆ' Â ± ci . Mayrhofer points out that the direct source of the Greek word is to be searched in the words of the Ancient Iran of the type * * vr? Z - or * vrinj - (Modern Persian source says Berenj ), but this is eventually traced back to Indo-Aryan (as in Sanskrit vr ? hÃÆ' - ). P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar assumes that Sanskrit vr? HÃÆ' - comes from Tamil arici , while Ferdinand Kittel takes it from the Dravidian root variki . However, R. Swaminatha Aiyar believes that Sanskrit vr? HÃÆ' - comes from Proto-Indo-Iranian root, and Ancient Tamil arici also from Indo-European origin.
Maps Rice
Characteristics
Paddy plants can grow up to 1-1.8 m (3.3 to 59 feet), sometimes more depending on varieties and soil fertility. The length is 50-100 cm long leaves (20-39 inches) and 2-2.5 cm wide (0.79-0.98 inches). Wind turbid flowers are produced in the form of curved branches to a 30-50 cm long (12-20 inch) inflorescence inflorescence. Edible seeds are granular (caryopsis) 5-12 mm (0.20-0.47 inches) and thickness 2-3 mm (0.079-0.11 inches).
Cooking
Rice varieties are usually classified as long-, medium-, and short-grained. Grain long grain (high amylose) grains tend to remain intact after cooking; medium rice (high in amylopectin) becomes more sticky. Rice is being used for sweet dishes, for risotto in Italy, and many rice dishes, such as arrÃÆ'²s negre , in Spain. Some varieties of high grain rice amylopectin, known as Thai sticky rice, are usually steamed. Medium sticky rice is used for sushi ; the stickiness allows the rice to retain its shape when printed. Rice is being used extensively in Japan, including to accompany tasty dishes, where it is usually served in separate dishes. Short rice is often used for rice pudding.
Instant rice differs from parboiled rice that is fully cooked and then dried, although there is a significant decrease in taste and texture. Rice and starch flour is often used in dough and bread to improve crispness.
Get started
Rice is usually rinsed before cooking to remove excess starch. Rice produced in the US is usually fortified with vitamins and minerals, and gargling will result in the loss of nutrients. Rice can be rinsed repeatedly until the water is rinsed clear to improve the texture and taste.
Rice can be soaked to reduce cooking time, save fuel, minimize exposure to high temperatures, and reduce stickiness. For some varieties, soaking increases the texture of cooked rice by increasing grain expansion. Rice can be soaked for 30 minutes to several hours.
Brown rice can be soaked in warm water for 20 hours to stimulate germination. This process, called germinated brown rice (GBR), activates enzymes and increases amino acids including gamma-aminobutyric acid to increase the nutritive value of brown rice. This method is the result of research conducted for the International Year of Rice UN.
Rice cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorb water during cooking. With the method of absorption, rice can be cooked in a volume of water equal to the volume of rice. With a quick boiling method, rice can be cooked in large quantities of dried water before serving. Quickly-boiling preparations are not desirable with fortified rice, as many of the enrichment additives are lost when water is removed. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice. Rice (or other grains) is sometimes quickly fried with oil or fat before boiling (eg saffron rice or risotto); this makes cooked rice less sticky, and is a cooking style commonly called pilaf in Iran and Afghanistan or biryani in India and Pakistan.
Plates
In Arabic cuisine, rice is the ingredient of many soups and dishes with fish, poultry, and other types of meat. It is also used for stuffing vegetables or wrapped in grape leaves (dolma). When combined with milk, sugar, and honey, it is used to make desserts. In some areas, such as Tabaristan, bread is made using rice flour. Medieval Islamic texts talk about medical use for the factory. Rice can also be made into porridge (also called rice porridge or rice porridge) by adding more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water, usually until it is destroyed. Rice porridge is generally eaten as breakfast food, as well as traditional food for the sick.
Food
Nutrition
Cooked, unrefined, white, long grained rice consists of 68% water, 28% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and negligible fats (table). In a serving of 100 grams, it provides 130 calories and contains no significant amount of micronutrients, with all less than 10% of the Daily Value (DV) (table). Cooked, white and short grain rice also provides 130 calories and contains vitamin B, iron, and manganese in moderation (10-17% DV) per 100 grams (table).
Detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice shows that the nutritional value of rice varies based on a number of factors. It depends on the type of rice, which is between the varieties of white, brown, red, and black (or purple) rice - each spread in different parts of the world. It also depends on the nutritional qualities of the ground rice grown, whether and how the rice is polished or processed, how it is enriched, and how it is prepared before consumption.
Rice is the staple food of more than half the world's population. It is the dominant food energy source for 17 countries in Asia and the Pacific, 9 countries in North and South America and 8 countries in Africa. Rice provides 20% of the world's food supply, while wheat supplies 19% and corn (5%).
Arsenic attention
Because arsenic is a natural element in soil, water, and air, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) monitors arsenic levels in foods, especially in rice products commonly used for baby food. As it grows, rice plants tend to more easily absorb arsenic than other food crops, requiring FDA-expanded testing for possible arsenic-related risks associated with rice consumption in the United States. In April 2016, the FDA proposed a limit of 100 parts per billion (ppb) for inorganic arsenic in baby rice cereal and other foods to minimize infant exposure to arsenic. For arsenic contamination of water, the US Environmental Protection Agency has set a standard lower than 10 ppb.
Arsenic is a Group 1 carcinogen. The amount of arsenic in rice varies greatly with the greatest concentration in brown rice and rice grown on land formerly used to grow cotton, as in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas. The white rice grown in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas, collectively responsible for 76 percent of the rice produced in America, has higher levels of arsenic than any other region in the world studied, perhaps because of the use of arsenic-based pesticides in the future then to control the cotton beetle. Jasmine rice from Thailand and Basmati rice from Pakistan and India contains the least amount of arsenic among rice varieties in one study. China has set a limit of 150 ppb for arsenic in rice.
Bacillus cereus
Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, which produce emetic toxins when left at 4-60Ã, Â ° C (39-140Ã, Â ° F). When storing cooked rice for use the next day, rapid cooling is recommended to reduce the risk of toxic production. One of the enterotoxins produced by Bacillus cereus is heat resistant; reheating contaminated rice kills bacteria, but does not destroy existing toxins.
The developing environment with rice
Rice can be grown in different environments, depending on the availability of water. Generally, rice does not flourish in a waterlogged area, but it can survive and grow here and can also survive the flood.
- Lowland, rain-fed, , which is drought-prone, delicious with medium depth; waterlogged, submerged, and flooded
- Lowlands, watered , grow in rainy season and dry season
- Water in or floating rice
- Beach wetlands
- Gogo rice also known as Ghaiya rice , famous for its tolerance for drought
History of domestication and cultivation
Wild rice, from which the crop is developed, may have its original range in Australia. The Chinese legend links the domestication of rice to Shennong, the legendary Chinese emperor and the founder of Chinese agriculture. Genetic evidence has shown that rice originated from one domestication 8,200-13,500 years ago in the Pearl River valley of Ancient China. Previously, archaeological evidence has shown that rice is domesticated in the Yangtze River basin region of China.
From East Asia (mainly from China), rice is spread to Southeast Asia and South Asia via caravan routes from the central Asian steppes. Since Buddhist monks are vegetarians, they bring rice with them through the steppes. Thus, a Buddhist text called AggaÃÆ' Â ± ÃÆ' Â ± a Sutta states that "the rice grew during the spread of Buddhism." Rice is introduced to Europe through West Asia, and to America through European colonization.
There is much debate about the origins of rice being cultivated. The genetic evidence published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States (PNAS) shows that all Asian rice forms, both indica and japonica , season semi from a single domestication occurring 8,200-13,500 years ago in China from wild rice Oryza rufipogon . A 2012 study published in Nature, through maps of rice genetic variations, shows that rice domestication occurs in the Pearl River valley region of China based on genetic evidence. From East Asia, rice spread to South and Southeast Asia. Prior to this research, a generally accepted view, based on archaeological evidence, was that rice was first domesticated in the Yangtze River basin region of China. Some scholars also suggest that it was first cultivated on the southern slopes of the Himalayas.
The morphological study of the phytolith of rice from the archaeological site Diaotonghuan clearly shows the transition from collecting wild rice to the cultivation of pet rice. The abundance of wild rice phytoliths at the Diabelhuan level from 12,000-11,000 BP indicates that the collection of wild rice is part of the local subsistence means. Changes in morphology of phytolith Diabetes derived from 10,000-8,000 BP indicate that rice at this time has been tamed. Soon after, two main varieties of indica and japonica rice were grown in Central China. At the end of the 3rd millennium BC, there is a rapid expansion of rice cultivation into mainland Southeast Asia and westward across India and Nepal.
In 2003, Korean archaeologists claimed to have discovered the world's oldest cultivated rice. Their 15,000-year age challenges the accepted view that rice cultivation originated in China about 12,000 years ago. These findings are accepted by academics with strong skepticism, and their results and publications have been cited as being fueled by a combination of nationalist and regional interests. In 2011, joint efforts by Stanford University, University of New York, University of Washington at St. Louis, and Purdue University have provided the strongest evidence that there is only one domestic rice origin, in the Yangtze Valley in China.
Rice spreads to the Middle East where, according to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p.Ã, 91), O. sativa is found from a grave in Susa in Iran (dated 1st century).
Regional history
Africa
African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between 1500 and 800 BC, Oryza glaberrima was reproduced from its original center, the Niger River delta, and extended to Senegal. However, it never progressed far from its original territory. Its cultivation even refused to support Asian species, which were introduced to East Africa at the beginning of the general era and spread to the west. African Rice helps Africa conquer 1203 hunger.
Asia
Currently, most of the rice produced comes from China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Korea and Japan. Asian farmers still own 87% of the world's total rice production.
Nepal
Rice is the main food among all ethnic groups in Nepal. In Terai, most rice varieties are cultivated during the rainy season. The main rice-growing season, known as "Berna-Bue Charne", is from June to July when water is sufficient for only part of the field; The children's season, known as "Ropai, is from April to September, when there is usually enough water to maintain the cultivation of all paddy fields." Farmers use irrigation channels during the cultivation season.
Philippines
Banaue Rice Terraces (Philippines: Hagdan-hagdang Palayan ng Banawe ) is a 2,000-year-old terrace carved into the Ifugao mountains of the Philippines by native peoples ancestors. Rice Terraces are commonly referred to as the "Eighth Wonders of the World". It is generally thought that the terrace is built with minimal equipment, mostly by hand. The terrace is located about 1500 meters (5000 ft) above sea level. They are fed by the ancient irrigation system of the rainforest on the terrace. It is said that if the step is put end to end, it will surround half the world. The terrace is found in Ifugao province and Ifugao's people are their guardians. Ifugao culture revolves around rice and culture presents a series of elaborate celebrations associated with agricultural rituals from rice planting to rice consumption. The harvest season generally calls for a celebration of gratitude, while a concluding harvest ceremony called tango or tung (rest day) requires a strict taboo on every farm job. Taking part of the bayah (rice beer), rice cakes, and peanuts is an indelible practice during the celebration.
Ifugao people practice traditional farming spend most of their workforce on their terraces and forestlands while occasionally tending to cultivate crops. Ifugaos is also known as an edible shell culture, fruit trees, and other vegetables that have been exhibited among the Ifugaos for generations. The paddy field consists of a wall covered with rocks and soil designed to draw water from the main irrigation canal over the cluster of terraces. The original rice field rice technology has been identified with Ifugao rice terraces such as their knowledge of water irrigation, stone work, ground work and patio maintenance. As a source of life and art, the fields have sustained and shaped the lives of community members.
Sri Lanka
Rice is a staple food among all ethnic groups in Sri Lanka. Agriculture in Sri Lanka relies primarily on rice cultivation. Rice production relies heavily on rainfall and the need for water supply through irrigation channels during the cultivation season. The main cultivation season, known as "Maha", is from October to March and the cultivation season of a subsidiary, known as "Yala", is from April to September. During the Maha season, there is usually enough water to support the cultivation of all the rice fields, but in the Yala season there is only enough water to plant half of the land area.
Traditional rice varieties are now back with a recent interest in green food.
Thai
Rice is Thailand's main export, mainly white jasmine rice 105 (Dok Mali 105). Thailand has many varieties of rice, 3,500 species with different characters, and five types of wild rice. In every region of the country there are various types of rice seeds. Its use depends on weather, atmosphere, and topography.
The northern region has lowlands and highlands. Regular plant of farmers is non-sticky rice such as Niew Sun Pah Tong rice. This rice is naturally protected from leaf disease, and rice (rice without rice) (Thailand: ??????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? the northeast is a vast area where farmers can cultivate about 36 million square meters of rice, although most of it is dryland and dryland, the most famous Thai white rice rice - Thai rice can be grown there.The white jasmine rice was developed in Chonburi Province first and subsequently grown in many parts of the country, but the rice from this region has a high quality, because it is softer, whiter, and more fragrant This rice can withstand drought, acid soil, and alkaline soil.
The central area consists mostly of plains. Most farmers grow Jao rice. For example, Pathum Thani 1 rice that has a quality similar to white rice jasmine 105. Rice fields have a straw color and cooked rice has a fragrant grain as well.
In the south, most farmers conduct transplants around the border to floodplains or in the plains between mountains. Agriculture in this region is slower than other regions because the rainy season comes later. The popular rice varieties in this area are the seeds of Leb Nok Pattani, a kind of Jao rice. Rice has the color of rumbia and can be processed to make noodles.
Companion plant
One of the best known examples of companion planting is the growth of rice with Azolla, a mosquito fern, which covers the tops of freshly paddy water, blocking all competing plants, and fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere for rice to use. Rice is grown when it is high enough to pop above azolla. This method has been used for at least a thousand years.
Middle East
Rice is grown in some areas of Mesopotamia (southern Iraq). With the advent of Islam it moves north to Nisibin, the southern shore of the Caspian Sea (in Gilan and Mazanderan of the Iranian province) and then outside the Muslim world into the Volga valley. In Egypt, rice is mainly grown in the Nile Delta. In Palestine, rice came to be planted in the Jordan Valley. Rice is also grown in Saudi Arabia at Al-Hasa Oasis and in Yemen.
Europe
Rice is known to the Classical world, imported from Egypt, and possibly West Asia. It is known to Greece (where it is still cultivated in Macedonia and Thrace) by returning troops from Alexander the Great military expedition to Asia. A large amount of rice from the first century AD has been found in Roman camps in Germany.
The Moor brought Asiatic rice to the Iberian Peninsula in the 10th century. Records show it grew in Valencia and Majorca. In Majorca, rice cultivation appears to have ceased after the Christian conquest, although historians are not convinced.
Muslims also brought rice to Sicily with cultivation beginning in the 9th century, where it was an important crop long before it was recorded in the plains of Pisa (1468) or on the plains of Lombard (1475), where its cultivation was promoted by Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, and demonstrated in his model farm.
After the 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy and then France, then spread to all continents during the European exploration age.
In Europe, Russia, short grained rice, flour similar to Italian varieties, has been planted in Krasnodar Krai, and is known in Russia as "Kuban Rice" or "Krasnodar Rice". In the Eastern Far East some japonica cultivars grow in Primorye around the lake Khanka. Increasing the scale of rice production in the region has recently led to criticisms of alleged farmer bad practices related to the environment.
Caribbean and Latin America
Most of the rice used today in American cuisine is not original, but was introduced to Latin America and the Caribbean by European colonizers at an early date. However, there are at least two native species (endemic) of rice present in the Amazon region of South America, and one or both are used by the natives of the area to create a pet form Oryza sp., About 4000 years ago.
The Spanish invaders introduced Asian rice to Mexico in the 1520s in Veracruz; and the Portuguese and their African slaves introduced him at about the same time as the Brazilian colonials. The latest scholarship shows that enslaved Africans play an active role in rice formation in the New World and that African rice is an important crop from the early period. The varieties of rice and bean dishes that are a staple dish throughout the West African community remain a staple among their descendants who are subjected to slavery in the New World colonies of Spain, Brazil, and elsewhere in America.
United States
In 1694, rice arrived in South Carolina, probably from Madagascar. The tradition (probably apocrypha) says that pirate John Thurber returned from a slave trade voyage to Madagascar when he was thrown off the track and put into Charleston for repair. While there, he gave a sack of rice to Dr. Henry Woodward, who planted the rice and experimented with it until it found that it grew very well in the wet Carolina soil.
In the United States, colonies of South Carolina and Georgia grew and accumulated great wealth of forced labor gained from the Senegambia region of West Africa and from the coast of Sierra Leone. In the port of Charleston, where 40% of all American slave imports pass, slaves from this region of Africa bring the highest prices because of their previous knowledge of rice culture, which is used in many rice plantations around Georgetown, Charleston. , and Savannah.
From enslaved Africans, plantation owners learn how to dip swamps and periodically flood the fields. At first the rice was milled by hand using a large mortar and wooden pestle, then fired in sweetgrass baskets (making which is another skill brought by slaves from Africa). The discovery of the rice mill increased the profitability of the plant, and the addition of hydropower to the plant in 1787 by grinding milling Jonathan Lucas was another step forward.
The culture of rice in the southeastern part of the US became less favorable with the loss of forced labor after the American Civil War, and eventually died after the turn of the 20th century. Today, people can visit the only remaining rice plantation in South Carolina that still has the reins and the original rice mill from the mid-19th century at the historic Mansfield Plantation in Georgetown, South Carolina. The dominant rice strain in Carolinas comes from Africa and is known as 'Carolina Gold'. Cultivars have been preserved and there are current efforts to introduce them as commercially grown crops.
In the southern United States, rice has been grown in southern Arkansas, Louisiana, and eastern Texas since the mid-19th century. Many Cajun farmers plant rice in wet swamps and lowland meadows where they can also farm crayfish when the fields are flooded. In recent years, rice production has increased in North America, particularly in Mississippi in the states of Arkansas and Mississippi (see also Arkansas Delta and Mississippi Delta).
Rice cultivation began in California during the California Gold Rush, when an estimated 40,000 Chinese workers immigrated to the state and planted small amounts of grain for their own consumption. However, commercial production only began in 1912 in the town of Richvale in Butte County. In 2006, California produced the second largest rice crop in the United States, after Arkansas, with production concentrated in six districts north of Sacramento. Unlike the Delta Arkansas-Mississippi region, California production is dominated by short- and medium-sized japonica varieties of wheat, including cultivars developed for local climates such as Calrose, which make up 85% of the country's crops.
The reference to North America's "wild rice" is to unrelated Zizania palustris.
More than 100 varieties of rice are commercially produced primarily in six states (Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and California) in the US. According to estimates for the 2006 harvest year, US rice production is worth $ 1.88 billion, about half of which is expected to be exported. The US provides about 12% of the world's rice trade. The majority of domestic US rice use is direct food use (58%), while 16% is used in every processed food and beer. 10% found in pet food.
Australia
Rice is one of the earliest crops grown in Australia by British settlers, who have experience with rice plantations in America and India.
Although efforts to plant rice in northern Australia have been watery for years, they have failed consistently because of iron and manganese that are inherent in the soil and are destroyed by pests.
In the 1920s, it was seen as a possible irrigation crop on the ground in the Murray-Darling Valley that was too heavy for fruit cultivation and too fertile for wheat.
Because irrigation water, despite the extremely low runoff from temperate Australia, is still (and still is) very cheap, rice growth is being picked up by agricultural groups over the next few decades. California rice varieties were found suitable for the climate in Riverina, and the first plant was opened in Leeton in 1951.
Even before Australian rice production greatly exceeded local demand, and rice exports to Japan have been a major source of foreign currency. The above-average rainfall from the 1950s to the mid-1990s encouraged the expansion of the Riverina rice industry, but the incredible water use in practically no water areas began to attract the attention of environmental scientists. This became very concerned with the declining flow in the Snowy River and the lower Murray River.
Although rice growing in Australia is very profitable because of the low price of land, the last few years of severe drought has caused many people to call for elimination because of its impact on a very fragile aquatic ecosystem. The Australian rice industry is somewhat opportunistic, with areas planted varying significantly from season to season depending on water allocation in the Murray and Murrumbidgee irrigation areas.
Aboriginal Australians have been harvesting indigenous rice varieties for thousands of years, and there are ongoing efforts to increase the commercial number of these species.
Production and trade
Production
In 2014, world rice production reached 741.5 million tons, led by China and India with a combined 49% of this total (table). Other major producers are Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Vietnam (table).
The average world agricultural output for rice in 2014 is 4.6 tons per hectare. Rice farming in France is the most productive in 2014, with a national average of 50.1 tons per hectare.
Rice is the main staple and mainstay for the rural population and food security. It is mainly cultivated by smallholders in ownership of less than 1 hectare. Rice is also a wage commodity for workers in agriculture or non-agricultural sectors. Rice is essential for the nutrition of most people in Asia, as well as in Latin America and the Caribbean and in Africa; it is a food safety center of more than half the world's population. Developing countries account for 95% of total production, with China and India alone accounting for nearly half of the world's output.
Many rice-producing countries experience significant post-harvest losses on agricultural land and due to poor roads, inadequate storage technologies, inefficient supply chains and the inability of farmers to bring their products to the retail market dominated by small shop owners. A World Bank - the FAO study claims 8% to 26% of rice is lost in developing countries, on average each year, due to poor post-harvest and infrastructure problems. Some sources claim post-harvest losses exceed 40%. Not only does this harm reduce food security in the world, the study claims that farmers in developing countries such as China, India and others lose about US $ 89 billion in revenues in post-harvest preventable crop losses, poor transport, lack of proper storage and retail. One study claims that if the loss of post-harvest seeds can be eliminated with better retail infrastructure and networks, in India alone enough food will be saved each year to feed 70 to 100 million people during the year.
Processing
The seeds of the first rice plant are milled using a rice mill to remove the husks (the outer husks from the grains). At this point in the process, this product is called brown rice. Milling can proceed, removing the bran, ie , remaining skin and germs, thus creating white rice. White rice, which lasts longer, lacks some essential nutrients; In addition, in a restricted diet that does not complement rice, brown rice helps prevent beriberi disease.
Either by hand or in a rice polish, white rice can be rubbed with glucose or powder (often called polish rice, although this term can also refer to white rice in general), split, or processed into flour. White rice can also be enriched by adding nutrients, especially those lost during the grinding process. While the cheapest enrichment method involves adding nutrient powder mixtures that will be easily cleaned (in the United States, such treated rice requires warning labels against rinsing), more sophisticated methods of applying nutrients directly to the grains, coating them. grains with water-insoluble substances that are resistant to washing.
In some countries, the popular form, parboiled rice (also known as converted rice ) is subjected to a steaming or parboiling process while still brown rice. The parboil process causes gelatinization of starch in the grain. The grains become less brittle, and the color of the grain mill turns from white to yellow. The rice is then dried, and then can be ground as usual or used as brown rice. Parboiled rice is a nutrient superior to standard milled rice, because the process causes nutrients from the outer shell (especially thiamine) to move to the endosperm, so less is lost when the skin is polished during grinding. Parboiled rice has the added benefit of not sticking to a pot during cooking, as it does when cooking plain white rice. This type of rice is eaten in parts of India and West African countries are also accustomed to eating parboiled rice.
Rice bran, called nuka in Japan, is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist and oily layer that is heated to produce oil. It is also used as a pickle bed in making pickled pickles and takuan .
Raw rice can be ground into flour for various purposes, including making various types of drinks, such as amazake, horchata , rice milk, and rice wine. Rice does not contain gluten, so it is suitable for people who are gluten-free diets. Rice can also be made into various types of noodles. Raw, wild, or brown rice can also be consumed by raw food or fruitarians if soaked and grown (usually a week to 30 days - rice gaba).
Rice seeds that are processed should be boiled or steamed before being eaten. The boiled rice can be fried again in cooking oil or butter (known as fried rice), or beaten in a tub to make mochi .
Rice is a good source of protein and staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein: it does not contain all essential amino acids in sufficient quantities for good health, and should be combined with other sources. proteins, such as nuts, seeds, nuts, fish, or meat.
Rice, like other cereal grains, can be bloated (or appear). This process takes advantage of the grain water content and usually involves the heating grains in a special chamber. Further bloating is sometimes done by processing puff pellets in a low pressure chamber. The ideal gas law means lowering local pressure or raising the water temperature results in an increase in volume before water evaporation, resulting in a swollen texture. Raw crude rice density is about 0.9 g/cmÃ,³. It is reduced to less than one tenth of that when breathless.
Harvesting, drying and milling
Rice without rice, known as "rice" (Indonesia and Malaysia: rice, Philippines, palay), is usually harvested when the grain has a moisture content of about 25%. In most Asian countries, where rice is almost entirely a people's agricultural product, harvesting is done manually, despite an increased interest in mechanical harvesting. Harvesting can be done by the farmers themselves, but also often done by the seasonal labor groups. Harvesting followed by threshing, either immediately or in a day or two. Again, many threshing is still done by hand but there is an increasing use of mechanical thresher. Furthermore, the paddy should be dried to reduce the water content to no more than 20% for grinding.
The familiar scenery in some Asian countries is the rice fields that are laid out to dry along the way. However, in most countries, most of the marketed rice drying takes place at the plant, with village-level drying being used for rice to be consumed by farming families. Mills either sun dried or using a mechanical dryer or both. Drying should be done quickly to avoid mold formation. Mills range from simple hulls, with throughput of several tons a day, which simply remove the outer shell, for large operations that can process 4,000 tons per day and produce very fine rice. Good plants can achieve up to 72% rice-to-rice conversion rates but smaller and inefficient plants often struggle to reach 60%. These smaller factories often do not buy rice and sell rice but only service farmers want to grind their rice for their own consumption.
Distribution
Due to the importance of rice for human nutrition and food security in Asia, the domestic rice market tends to be the target of considerable state involvement. While the private sector plays a major role in most countries, institutions such as BULOG in Indonesia, the NFA in the Philippines, VINAFOOD in Vietnam and the Food Corporation of India are all heavily involved in purchasing rice from farmers or rice from factories and distributing rice to the poor. Bulog and NFA monopolize rice imports into their countries while VINAFOOD controls all exports from Vietnam.
Trading
The world trade figure is very different from production, because less than 8% of the rice produced is traded internationally. In economic terms, global rice trade is a fraction of 1% of world trade. Many countries regard rice as a strategic staple food, and governments are subject to trade for various controls and interventions.
Developing countries are major players in world rice trade, covering 83% of exports and 85% of imports. Although there are many rice importers, rice exporters are limited. Only five countries - Thailand, Vietnam, China, the United States and India - in order to reduce the quantity of exports, accounted for about three quarters of world rice exports in 2002. However, this ranking has changed rapidly in recent years. In 2010, the three largest rice exporters, in order to decrease the quantity exported were Thailand, Vietnam and India. In 2012, India became the largest rice exporter with a 100% increase in exports from year to year, and Thailand slumped to third. Together, Thailand, Vietnam and India account for nearly 70% of world rice exports.
The main varieties exported by Thailand and Vietnam are Jasmine rice, while exports from India include varieties of aromatic Basmati. China, a rice exporter in early 2000, is a net rice importer in 2010 and will be the largest net importer, surpassing Nigeria in 2013. According to USDA report, the world's largest rice exporter in 2012 is India (9.75%). million tons), Vietnam (7 million tons), Thailand (6.5 million tons), Pakistan (3.75 million tons) and the United States (3.5 million tons).
Major importers usually include Nigeria, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, Philippines, Brazil and some Gulf countries of Africa and Persia. In common with other West African countries, Nigeria is actively promoting domestic production. However, its very heavy import duty (110%) opens it for smuggling from neighboring countries. Parboiled rice is very popular in Nigeria. Although China and India are the two largest rice producers in the world, these two countries consume mostly domestically produced rice, leaving little to trade internationally.
World's most productive rice cultivators and rice farmers
The world average yield for rice is 4.3 tons per hectare, in 2010.
Australian rice farms were the most productive in 2010, with a national average of 10.8 tons per hectare.
Yuan Longping of China's National Hybrid Rice Development and Research Center, China, set a world record for 2010 rice harvest of 19 tons per hectare in a demonstration plot. In 2011, the record was surpassed by Indian farmer Sumant Kumar, with 22.4 tons per hectare in Bihar. Both farmers claim to have employed a newly developed rice breed and System of Rice Intensification (SRI), the latest innovation in paddy farming. SRI is claimed to have set a new national record in rice harvest, in the past 10 years, in many countries. The results of China and India claimed to have not been proven on seven hectares of land and can be reproduced for two consecutive years on the same plot.
Price
At the end of 2007 to May 2008, grain prices increased rapidly due to drought in major producing countries (mainly Australia), increased use of grain for livestock feed and US subsidies for biofuel production. Although there is no shortage of rice in the world market, the general trend of rising grain prices causes consumer panic buying, the ban on government rice exports (in particular, by Vietnam and India) and the growing import orders by the Philippines marketing council, National Food Authority. This causes a significant increase in rice prices. At the end of April 2008, the price reached 24 cents US dollars, double the price of seven months earlier. During the period 2007 to 2013, the Chinese government has substantially increased the prices paid by domestic farmers for their rice, rising to US $ 500 per metric ton in 2013. The 2013 rice price derived from other Southeast Asian countries is relatively low. $ 350 per metric ton.
On April 30, 2008, Thailand announced plans for the establishment of the Organization of Rice Exporting Countries (OREC) with the intention that this should develop into a rice price fixing cartel. However, little progress has been made in mid 2011 to achieve this.
Global consumption
In 2009 world rice consumption of rice was 531.6 million metric tons of rice equivalent (354,603 grind equivalents), while China's largest consumer consumed 156.3 million metric tons of rice equivalent (29.4% of world consumption) and India consumed 123, 5 million metric tons of paddy equivalent (23.3% of world consumption). Between 1961 and 2002, per capita rice consumption increased by 40%.
Rice is the most important crop in Asia. In Cambodia, for example, 90% of the total agricultural area is used for rice production.
US rice consumption has risen sharply over the last 25 years, driven in part by commercial applications such as beer production. Almost one in five American adults report eating at least half the portion of white or brown rice per day.
Environmental impact
Rice cultivation in wetland rice is considered responsible for 11% of anthropogenic methane emissions. Rice needs a little more water to produce than other grains. Rice production uses nearly a third of Earth's fresh water.
Long-term flooding of rice fields cuts the soil from atmospheric oxygen and causes anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil. Methane production from rice cultivation accounts for ~ 1.5% of anthropogenic greenhouse gases. Methane has greenhouse gases twenty times stronger than carbon dioxide.
A 2010 study found that, as a result of rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during the last years of the 20th century, the rate of rice yield growth has decreased in many parts of Asia, compared to what will be observed to have temperatures and sun radiation trends do not occur. The yield growth rate has fallen by 10-20% in some locations. The study is based on records of 227 farms in Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal, India, China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. The fallout mechanism is unclear, but may involve increased respiration during warm nights, which drain energy without photosynthesis.
Rainfall
Temperature
Rice requires high temperatures above 20 ° C (68 ° F) but not more than 35 to 40 ° C (95 to 104 ° F). The optimum temperature is about 30 Â ° C (T max ) and 20Ã, Â ° C (T min ).
Solar radiation
The amount of solar radiation received during the 45 days before harvest determines the final crop.
atmospheric water vapor
High moisture content (in humid tropics) is an unusual stress subject that supports the spread of fungal and bacterial diseases.
Wind
Light winds carry CO 2 to the leaf canopy but strong winds cause severe damage and can cause infertility (due to dehydration of pollen, spikelet sterility, and endosperms fail).
Pests and diseases
Rice pests are organisms or microbes with the potential to reduce the yield or value of rice plants (or rice seeds). Paddy pests include weeds, pathogens, insects, nematodes, rodents, and birds. Various factors can contribute to pest pests, including climatic factors, improper irrigation, excessive use of insecticides and high levels of nitrogen fertilizer use. Weather conditions also contribute to pest attacks. For example, bile flies and outbreaks of army worms tend to follow periods of high rainfall early in the wet season, while the outbreak of thrips is related to drought.
Insects
Major insect pests include: brown planthopper (BPH), some spp. of stemborers - including those within the genus Scirpophaga and Chilo , rice missiles, some spp. rice bug - especially in the genus Leptocorisa , rice leaf sower, rice beetle and Chinese rice grasshopper. Fallen army worms, Lepidoptera species, also target and cause damage to rice crops.
Disease
The rice explosion, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea , is the most significant disease affecting rice cultivation. Other major rice diseases include: skin diseases, rice stunt (vector: BPH), and tungro (vector: Nephotettix spp). There is also ascomycete mushroom, Cochliobolus miyabeanus , which causes brown spot disease on rice.
Nematodes
Some nematode species infect rice plants, causing diseases such as Ufra (Ditylenchus dipsaci), white tip disease (Aphelenchoide bessei), and root root disease (Meloidogyne graminicola). Some species of nematodes such as Pratylenchus spp. most dangerous in highland rice from all parts of the world. Rice root nematodes ( Hirschmanniella oryzae ) are migratory endoparasites which, at higher levels of inoculum, lead to total destruction of rice crops. Aside from being a obligate parasite, they also decrease plant power and increase plant susceptibility to pests and other diseases.
Other pests
These include apple snails Pomacea canaliculata, panicles of rice, mice and weeds Echinochloa crusgali .
Integrated pest management
Plant protection scientists are trying to develop sustainable rice pest management techniques. In other words, to manage plant pests in such a way that future crop production is not threatened. Sustainable pest management is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance (HPR), landscape ecology, and hierarchy within the landscape - from biological to social. Currently, rice pest management includes cultural techniques, pest-resistant rice varieties, and pesticides (which include insecticides). Increasingly, there is evidence that pesticide farmers' applications are often unnecessary, and even facilitate pest outbreaks. By reducing the natural enemy population of rice pests, insecticide misuse can actually cause pest outbreaks. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) showed in 1993 that a reduction in pesticide use by 87.5% could lead to a decrease in overall pest numbers. IRRI also conducted two campaigns in 1994 and 2003, respectively, which prevented the misuse of insecticides and the more intelligent pest management in Vietnam.
Rice plants produce their own chemical defenses to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as the 2,4-D herbicide, cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and thereby increase the resistance of the crops to certain types of pests. In contrast, other chemicals, such as the imidacloprid insecticide, may induce a change in the expression of the rice gene that causes the plant to become more susceptible to attack by certain pest species. 5-Alkylresorcinols are chemicals that can also be found in rice.
Botany, called "natural pesticides", is used by some farmers in an effort to control rice pests. Botany includes leaf extract, or mulch of the leaf itself. Some highland rice farmers in Cambodia spread the chopped leaves from bitter bush ( Chromolaena odorata
Among the rice cultivars, there are differences in response to, and recovery from, pest damage. Many rice varieties have been selected for resistance to insect pests. Therefore, certain cultivars are recommended for areas susceptible to certain pest problems. The genetic ability of rice varieties to resist pest attacks is called resistance. The three main types of plant resistance to pests are recognized as nonreferences, antibiotics, and tolerance. Nonpreference (or antixenosis) describes host plants that the insects prefer to avoid; antibiosis is where insect survival decreases after swallowing host tissue; and tolerance is the capacity of a plant to produce high yields or maintain high quality despite insect attacks.
Over time, the use of resistant rice varieties selects for pests that are able to overcome this resistance mechanism. When a rice variety is no longer able to withstand a pest attack, the resistance is said to have been damaged. Rice varieties that can be widely planted for years in the presence of pests and retain their ability to survive from pests are said to have long-lasting resilience. Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly filtered by plant breeders to find new sources of durable resistance.
Parasitic weed
Rice is a parasite by eudicot weed Striga hermonthica , which has a local interest for this plant.
Ecotypes and cultivars
While most of the rice is cultivated for the quality and productivity of the plant, there are varieties selected for characteristics such as texture, odor, and firmness. There are four main categories of rice worldwide: indica, japonica, aromatics and sticky rice. Various varieties of rice are not considered to be interchangeable, whether in the preparation of food or agriculture, so as a result, each major variety is a market completely separate from other varieties. It is common for one type of rice to rise in price while another one goes down.
Rice cultivars also fall into groups according to environmental conditions, planting season, and harvest season, called ecotypes. Some of the major groups are Japanese (growing in Japan), "bully" and "tjereh" types (Indonesia); "Safe" (the main winter crop), "aus" ("aush", summer), and "boro" (spring) (Bengal and Assam). There are cultivars adapted to deep floods, and these are commonly called "floating rice".
The largest collection of rice cultivars is at the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines, with over 100,000 rice access held at the International Rice Genebank. Rice cultivars are often grouped according to the shape and texture of the granules. For example, Thai jasmine rice is long grain and relatively less sticky, as some long grain beans contain less amylopectin than short grain cultivars. Chinese restaurants often serve long grains as steamed rice which is not bachelors although short rice is also common. Japanese mochi rice and Chinese sticky rice are short grains. Chinese people use sticky rice known as "glutinous rice" (note: glutinous rice refers to characteristics like rice glue, not referring to "gluten") to make zongzi. Japanese table rice is sticky short rice. Japanese sake rice is another kind too.
Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromatic Basmati (grown in the North), long and medium-grained Patna rice, and in South India (Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka) short-grained Sona Masuri (also called as Bangaru theegalu). In the state of Tamil Nadu, the most valuable cultivars are the ponni that mainly grow in the area of ​​the Kaveri River delta. Kaveri is also called a ponni in the South and his name reflects the geographical region in which it grows. In the state of Maharashtra in Western India, short-grain varieties called Ambemohar are very popular. This rice has a distinctive aroma of mango.
Aromatic rices have a definite aroma and flavor; The most famous cultivars are Thai fragrant rice, Basmati, Patna rice, Vietnamese fragrant rice, and American hybrid cultivars, sold under the trade name Texmati. Both Basmati and Texmati have mild popcorn flavors and flavors. In Indonesia, there are also red and black cultivars.
High yields of rice cultivars suitable for cultivation in Africa and other dry ecosystems, called new rice for African cultivars (NERICA), have been developed. It is hoped that their cultivation will improve food security in West Africa.
The genome draft for the two most common rice cultivars, indica and japonica , was published in April 2002. Rice was selected as a model organism for grass biology due to relatively small genomes (~ 430 pairs megabase). Rice is the first plant with a complete genome sequence.
On December 16, 2002, the UN General Assembly declared 2004 as the International Year of Rice. The declaration is sponsored by more than 40 countries.
Biotechnology
Superior varieties
The superior variety is a group of plants made intentionally during the Green Revolution to increase global food production. This project allows the labor market in Asia to shift away from agriculture, and into the industrial sector. The first "Rice Car", IR8 was produced in 1966 at the Philippine-based International Rice Research Institute at the site of Los Baà ± a University of the Philippines. IR8 was created through a cross between the Indonesian varieties named "Peta" and various Chinese named "Dee Geo Woo Gen."
Scientists have identified and cloned many of the genes involved in the gibberellin signaling pathway, including GAI1 (insensitive Giberelin) and SLR1 (Nasi Slender). Gibberellin-inducing disorders can cause a significant reduction in stem growth leading to a dwarf phenotype. The investment of photosynthesis in the stem is reduced dramatically because shorter plants are inherently more mechanically stable. Assimilation becomes directed to grain production, reinforcing in particular the effects of chemical fertilizers on commercial yields. In the presence of nitrogen fertilizers, and intensive crop management, these varieties increase their yield two to three times.
Potential future
When the UN Millennium Development Project seeks to spread global economic development to Africa, the "Green Revolution" is called a model for economic development. In order to replicate the success of the Asian boom in agronomic productivity, groups like the Earth Institute are doing research on African farming systems, hoping to increase productivity. An important way that can happen is the production of "New Rices for Africa" ​​(NERICA). These spices, chosen to tolerate low input and harsh growth conditions from African agriculture, are produced by the African Rice Center, and are billed as "from Africa, for Africa" ​​technology. NERICA has appeared on The New York Times (October 10, 2007) and the International Herald Tribune (October 9, 2007), bellowing as a magical plant that will dramatically increase rice yields in Africa and enabling economic revival. Ongoing research in China to develop annual rice can result in increased food security and resilience.
Golden rice
Rice kernels do not contain vitamin A, so people who get most of the calories from their rice are at risk of vitamin A deficiency. German and Swiss researchers have genetically engineered rice to produce beta-carotene, a precursor for vitamin A, in the rice kernel. Beta-carotene converts processed (white) rice into "gold" color, hence the name "golden rice." Beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A in humans who consume rice. Although some rice strains produce beta-carotene in the stomach, no non-genetic strains are found that produce beta-carotene in the kernel, despite testing thousands of strains. Additional efforts are being made to improve the quantity and quality of other nutrients in golden rice.
The International Rice Research Institute is currently developing and evaluating Gold Rice as a potential new way to help overcome vitamin A deficiency.
Human protein expression
Ventria Bioscience has genetically engineered rice to express lactoferrin, a lysozyme that is a protein normally found in breast milk, and human serum albumin. This protein has antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal effects.
Rice containing this additional protein can be used as a component in the oral rehydration solution used to treat diarrheal diseases, shortening the duration and reducing recurrence. Such supplements can also help to reverse anemia.
Flood-tolerant rice
Because different water levels can reach in the cultivated area, flood-tolerant varieties have long been developed and used. Flood is a problem many rice farmers face, especially in South and Southeast Asia where annual floods affect 20 million hectares. The standard rice varieties can not withstand floods that are stagnant for more than a week, mainly because it does not allow crop access to the necessary requirements such as sunlight and essential gas exchange, inevitably causing the plant to recover. In the past, this has caused huge losses in crops, such as in the Philippines, where in 2006, a $ 65 million rice plant lost in floods. Newly developed cultivars are trying to increase flood tolerance.
Drought represents significant environmental pressures for rice production, with 19-23 million hectares of rainfed rice production in South and Southeast Asia often at risk. Under conditions of drought, without sufficient water to give them the ability to obtain required nutrient levels from the soil, conventional commercial rice varieties can be severely affected - for example, a yield loss of as high as 40% has affected some parts of India, resulting in a loss of about US $ 800 million per year.
The International Rice Research
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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