Urine test strip

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The urine test or dip test is the basic diagnostic tool used to determine pathological changes in the urine of a patient in a standard urinalysis.

A standardized urine test strip may consist of up to 10 different chemical or reagent reagents that react (change color) when immersed in, and then removed from, urine samples. This test can often be read only within 60 to 120 seconds after being immersed, although certain tests take longer. Routine urine testing with multiparameter strips is the first step in the diagnosis of various diseases. This analysis includes testing for the presence of proteins, glucose, ketones, hemoglobin, bilirubin, urobilinogen, acetone, nitrite and leucocytes as well as pH and weight testing or to test for infection by different pathogens.

The test strip consists of tape made of plastic or paper about 5 millimeters, the plastic strip has a cushion impregnated with a chemical that reacts with a compound present in the urine that produces a distinctive color. For reactant strip paper is absorbed directly to the paper. Paper strips are often specific to one reaction (eg pH measurement), while strips with pads allow multiple determinations simultaneously.

There are strips that serve different purposes, such as the qualitative strip which only determines whether the sample is positive or negative, or there is semi-quantitative which in addition provides a positive or negative reaction also provides a predicted outcome quantitatively, in the latter the color reaction is approximately proportional to the concentration of the substance tested in the sample. The result reading is done by comparing the color pad with the color scales provided by the manufacturer, no additional equipment is required.

This type of analysis is very common in the control and monitoring of diabetic patients. The time required for the appearance of test results on the strip may vary from a few minutes after the test to 30 minutes after dipping the strip in the urine (depending on the brand of product used).

Semi-quantitative values ​​are usually reported as: traces, 1, 2, 3 and 4; although tests can also be estimated as milligrams per desilitilitre. Automatic test strip readers also deliver results using units from the International System of Units.

Video Urine test strip

Test method

The test method consists of soaking the test strip completely in a well mixed urine sample for a short time, then extracting it from the container and supporting the strip edge over the mouth of the container to remove excessive urine. The strips are then left standing for the time required for the reaction to occur (usually 1 to 2 minutes), and finally the color that appears compared to the chromatic scale provided by the manufacturer.

Incorrect techniques can produce faulty results, for example, leukocytes and erythrocytes settle at the bottom of the container and may not be detected if the sample is not well mixed, and in the same way, if the excess urine remains on the strip after it has been removed from the test sample , can cause the reagent to leak from the pads to the adjacent pads resulting in mixing and color distortion. To ensure that this does not happen advisable strip edges are dried on absorbent paper.

Maps Urine test strip

Reactions to general tests using urine test strips

pH

The lungs and kidneys are the main regulators of the acid/alkaline balance of organisms. The balance is maintained through controlled excretion of acidic hydrogen in the form of ammonia ions, monohydrogenated phosphates, weak organic acids and by reabsorption of bicarbonate through glomerular filtration in the convoluted tubules of the nephrons. The urinary pH usually varies between 4.5 and 8 with the first urine produced in the morning generally becoming more acidic and the urine produced after meals is generally more alkaline. Normal reference values ​​are not provided for urine pH because the variations are too wide and the results should be considered in the context of other quantitative parameters.

Determination of urine pH has two main objectives, one being diagnostic and the other therapeutic. On the one hand it provides information about the balance between acid and alkali in patients and allows the identification of substances present in urine in the form of crystals. On the other hand, certain diseases require patients to keep their urine pH within narrow limits, whether to promote the elimination of chemotherapeutic agents, avoid salt deposition which increases gallstone formation, or to facilitate urinary infection control. The dietary regulation mainly controls the pH of the urine, although using the drug can also control it. Diets rich in animal protein tend to produce acidic urine, while diet consists primarily of vegetables tending to produce alkaline urine.

Commercial brands measure pH by adding 0.5 or 1 unit pH between pH 5 and 9. To differentiate pH in this wide range it is common to use a double indicator system consisting of methyl red and bromothymol blue. Methyl red produces discoloration from red to yellow in the pH range of 4 to 6 and bromothymol blue changes from yellow to blue between pH 6 and 9. In the range 5 to 9 the strip shows the color that changes from orange at pH 5, passes yellow and green to dark blue at pH 9.

Specific gravity

The most important function of the kidneys is to reabsorb water after glomerular filtration. This complicated reabsorption process is usually one of the first kidney function affected by the disease. The density of the urine is the size of the density of the solute in it and it depends on the amount of dissolved particles and their mass. The molecules with the largest mass contribute more to the specific gravity size than the smaller molecules. Specific gravity measurements should not be confused with measurements of osmotic concentrations, which are more related to the number of particles compared to their mass.

Urine test strip tests for specific gravity are based on changes in the dissociation constant (pK _a ) of anionic polyelectrolyte (poly- (methyl vinyl ether/maleic anhydride)) in ionized alkaline medium. and releases hydrogen ions in proportion to the number of cations present in the solution. The larger the urinary cation concentration the more hydrogen ions are released, thus reducing the pH. This pad also includes bromothymol blue which measures this pH change. It should be remembered that the test strips only measure the concentration of the cations, so it is possible that urine with high concentrations of non-ionic solutes (such as glucose or urea) or with high molecular weight compounds (such as the medium used to provide contrast radiography) mistakenly lower than that measured by densitometry. The colors vary from dark blue to 1,000 to yellow readings for 1,030 readings.

• 1) In basic medium

• 2) In basic medium

High protein concentrations produce little specific density results as a consequence of indicator protein error, in addition, samples with a pH above 6.5 give a lower reading as a result of the indicator bias. For this reason, the manufacturer recommends that 5 units be added to specific gravity readings when the pH is greater than 6.5.

Blood

Blood can present in the urine either in the form of red blood cells intact (hematuria) or as a product of destruction of red blood cells, hemoglobin (hemoglobinuria). The presence of large amounts of blood can be detected visually. Hematuria produces turbid red urine, and hemoglobinuria appears as a clear red specimen. Any amount of blood greater than five cells per microliter of urine is considered clinically significant, visual examination is not reliable for detecting the presence of blood. Microscopic examination of urine sediments shows intact red blood cells, but the free hemoglobin produced either by hemolytic disorder or red cell lysis is undetectable. Therefore, chemical tests for hemoglobin provide the most accurate means to determine the presence of blood. Once the blood has been detected, microscopic examination can be used to distinguish between hematuria and hemoglobinuria.

Chemical tests for blood use the activity of hemoglobin pseudoperoxidase to catalyze the reaction between the heme component of both hemoglobin and myoglobin and chromogen tetramethylbenzidine to produce and oxidize chromogen, which has a green-blue color. Manufacturers of reagent strips include peroxides, and tetramethylbenzidine, into the blood testing area. Two color graphs are provided that correspond to reactions that occur with hemoglobinuria, myoglobinuria and hematuria (red blood cells). In the presence of free hemoglobin/myoglobin, uniform colors ranging from negative yellow through green to very positive blue blue appear on the pad. In contrast, the intact red blood cells are lubricated when they come in contact with the pad, and the liberated hemoglobin produces an isolated reaction that produces a pattern of mottled on the pad. Reagent strip tests can detect concentrations as low as five red blood cells per microliter; However, care should be taken when comparing these numbers with actual microscopic values, since the absorbent properties of the pad attract some urine. Tracking terms, small, medium, and large or traces, 1, 2, and 3 are used for reporting.

False-positive reactions due to menstrual contamination may be apparent. They also occur if a strong oxidizing detergent is present in the specimen container. Vegetable peroxidases and bacterial enzymes, including Escherichia coli peroxidase, may also cause false-positive reactions. Therefore, bacterial-containing sediments should be carefully examined for the presence of red blood cells. Traditionally, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) has been associated with the reaction of false-negative reagent strips for blood. Both Multitistix and Chemstrip have modified their reagent strips to reduce this disturbance to extremely high levels of ascorbic acid, and Chemstip coats the reagent pad with impregnated mesh mesh that oxidizes ascorbic acid before it reaches the reaction pad. False negative reactions can occur when urine with high specific gravity contains copulating red blood cells that do not melisis when they come into contact with the reagent pads. Decreased reactivity can also be seen when formalin is used as a preservative or when a hypertensive drug of captopril or high concentrations of nitrite is present. Red blood cells settle at the bottom of the specimen container, and failure to mix the specimen before the test causes a faulty reading to be reduced.

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Disease Identified with Urine Test Path

With the help of a routine examination, the initial symptoms of the following four groups can be identified:

• Kidney and urinary tract disease
• Carbohydrate metabolism disorders (diabetes mellitus)
• Liver diseases and hemolytic disorders
• Urinary tract infection

Kidney and urinary diseases

Filtering parameters: Many kidney and urinary tract diseases may be asymptomatic for long periods of time. Routine urinalysis is recommended as a basic but fundamental step in identifying kidney damage and/or urinary tract disease at an early stage, especially in high-risk populations such as diabetics, hypertension, African Americans, Polynesians, and those with a family history.

Identified renal and urinary tract diseases include: chronic kidney disease, glomerulonephritis, proteinuria and haematuria.

Testing protein

From routine chemistry tests done on urine, which most indicate kidney disease is the determination of protein. Proteinuria is often associated with early kidney disease, making urine protein testing an important part of any physical examination. Normal urine contains fewer proteins, usually less than 100-300 mg/L or 100 mg per 24 hours excreted. This protein consists mainly of low molecular weight serum proteins that have been filtered by glomeruli and proteins produced in the genitourinary tract. Because of its low molecular weight, albumin is the major serum protein found in plasma, normal low urinary albumin content because the majority of albumin presented in the glomerulus is not filtered, and much of the filtered albumin is reabsorbed by the tubules. Other proteins include small amounts of serum and tubular microglobulins. Uromodulin is produced by renal tubular epithelial cells and proteins from prostate, seminal, and vaginal secretions. Uromodulin is routinely produced in distal tubular tubes, and forms a plaster matrix.

Testing of traditional reagent strips for protein uses the principle of indicator protein error to produce a visible colorimetric reaction. Contrary to the general belief that indicators produce certain colors in response to certain pH levels, certain indicators change color in the presence of proteins even though the pH of the medium remains constant. This happens because the protein receives hydrogen ions from the indicator. This test is more sensitive to albumin because albumin contains more amino groups to receive hydrogen ions than any other protein. Depending on the manufacturer, the protein area on the strip contains different chemicals. Multistix contains tetrabromophenol blue and Chemstrip containing 3 ', 3 ", 5', 5" -tetrachlorophenol, 3,4,5,6-tetrabromosulfonphthalein. Both contain an acid buffer to keep the pH at a constant level. At pH 3 level, both indicators appear yellow in the absence of protein. However, as the protein concentration increases, the color develops through various shades of green and eventually becomes blue. Readings are reported in negative, trace, 1, 2, 3 and 4 or semi-quantitative values ​​of 30, 100, 300 or 2000 mg/dL according to any discoloration. Trace value is considered to be less than 30 mg/dL. Interpretation of trace readings can be difficult.

The main source of error with the reagent strip occurs with a highly buffered alkaline urine that overrides the acid buffer system, resulting in increased pH and discoloration unrelated to the protein concentration. Likewise, technical errors allow the pa reagent to remain in contact with urine for a long time to remove the buffer. False-positive readings are obtained when the reaction does not occur under acidic conditions. Urine is highly pigmented and contaminated from containers with quaternary ammonium compounds, detergents and antiseptics also causing false-positive readings. False-positive trace readings can occur on specimens with high specific gravity.

Tes hemoglobin dan mioglobin

The presence of blood in the urine, of all parameters normally tested, is one of the most closely related to traumatic damage to the kidney or genitourinary tract. The most common causes of haematuria are: nephrolithiasis, glomerular disease, tumors, pyelonephritis, nephrotoxin exposure, and anticoagulant treatment. Non-pathological haematuria can be observed after strenuous exercise and during menstruation. The normal number of red blood cells in the urine usually does not exceed 3 per high-power field.

Urine test strips positive for blood can also show hemoglobinuria, which is undetectable using a microscope because of red blood cell lysis in the urinary tract (especially in alkaline or dilute urine), or intravascular haemolysis. Under normal conditions the formation of complex haptoglobin-hemoglobin prevents glomerular filtration, but if hemolysis is a large haptoglobin absorption capacity is exceeded and hemoglobin may appear in the urine. Hemoglobinuria can be caused by hemolytic anemia, blood transfusion, extensive burns, lethal spider bites (Loxosceles), infection and severe exercise.

The test of urine blood test strips is based on pseudo hemoglobin peroxidase activity in catalyzing the reaction between hydrogen peroxide and chromogen tetramethylbenzidine to produce a dark blue oxidation product. the resulting colors can vary between dark green and blue depending on the amount of hemoglobin.

• Be analyzed by hemoglobin which acts as peroxidase The reaction is not only catalyzed by blood hemoglobin, other globins with hem groups such as myoglobin can also catalyze the same reaction.

The presence of myoglobin in the urine gives a positive reaction in the blood test of the strip test but the urine looks clear with red to brown. The presence of myoglobin at the site of hemoglobin may be due to pathology associated with muscle damage (rhabdomyolysis), such as trauma, crush syndrome, prolonged coma, seizures, progressive muscular atrophy, alcoholism, heroin abuse and severe physical activity.

This haem-protein fraction is toxic to renal tubules and high concentrations can cause acute renal insufficiency.

It is possible to use an ammonia sulphate precipitation test to distinguish between hemoglobinuria and myoglobinuria. It consists of adding 2.8gr of ammonia sulfate to 5 ml of centrifugation urine, mixing well and after 5 minutes filtering the sample and centrifuging again. Hemoglobin settles out with ammonia sulfate but not myoglobin. Supernatant analysis for blood with test strips will give positive if myoglobin is present and negative if hemoglobin is present.

This test may provide a false positive if a strong oxidant or peroxide residue exists in the laboratory material used for the analysis.

Carbohydrate metabolism disorders

• Glucose - Identified as Glikosuria
• Ketones - Identified as Ketonuria (also see ketoacidosis and ketosis)

About 30-40% of type I diabetics and about 20% of type II diabetics suffer in time from nephropathy, and early recognition of diabetes is therefore very important for the state of health of these patients.

Specific disorders of identified carbohydrate metabolism include Diabetes Mellitus, Glucosuria and Ketonuria.

Glucose Test

Under normal conditions, almost all glucose released in the glomerulus is reabsorbed in the convoluted proximal tubules. If the blood glucose level increases, as occurs in diabetes mellitus, the tubular capacity of convoluted to absorb the glucose is exceeded (the effect known as the renal reabsorption threshold ). For glucose, this threshold is between 160-180 mg/dl. The concentration of glucose varies within the individual, and a healthy person can present with glucosuria while after eating high sugar; hence the most representative results come from samples obtained at least two hours after the food is eaten.

Detection of glucose by the test strip is based on the enzymatic reaction of glucose oxidase. This enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of glucose by atmospheric oxygen to form D-glucono -? - lactone and hydrogen peroxide. The second related reaction, mediated by peroxidase, catalyzes the reaction between peroxide and chromogen (a substance that obtains color after a chemical reaction) to form a colored compound that indicates glucose concentration.

• 1) Analyzed by glucose oxidase

• 2) Be analyzed by peroxidase

Specific reactions to glucose, as occurs in all enzymatic reactions, but may give false-positive results due to traces of strong oxidizing agents or peroxides from disinfectants used in laboratory instruments.

Test ketones

The term ketone or ketone bodies in fact refers to three intermediate products in fatty acid metabolism; acetone, acetoacetic acid and beta-hydroxybutyric acid. Increased ketone concentrations are generally not found in urine, as all these substances are fully metabolized, producing energy, carbon dioxide and water. However, carbohydrate metabolism disorders can cause metabolic imbalances and the appearance of ketones as a by-product of the metabolism of organism's fatty reserves.

Increased fat metabolism may result from starvation or malabsorption, inability to metabolize carbohydrates (as happens, for example, in diabetes) or due to loss of frequent vomiting.

Urinary ketone control is very useful in managing and monitoring type 1 diabetes mellitus. Ketonuria shows an insulin deficiency that indicates the need to regulate the dose. Increased ketone blood concentration results in water-electrolyte imbalance, dehydration and if not corrected, acidosis and diabetic coma eventually.

Three ketone compounds appear in different proportions in the urine, although this proportion is relatively constant in different samples as both acetone and beta-hydroxybutyric acid are produced from acetoacetic acids. The proportions are 78% beta-hydroxybutyric acid, 20% acetoacetic acid and 2% acetone.

The test used in urine test strips is based on the reaction of sodium nitroprusside (nitroferricyanide). In this reaction acetoacetic acid in the alkaline medium reacts with sodium nitroprusside to produce a magenta colored complex:

This test does not measure beta-hydroxybutyric acid and is only very sensitive to acetone when glycine is added to the reaction. However, since this compound is derived from acetoacetic acids its presence can be assumed and a separate test is not required. Drugs containing sulfhydryl groups, such as Na (Mesna) merkaptoetane sulfonate and captopril and L-DOPA can provide atypical staining. A false negative can occur in a sample that has not been adequately stored due to volatilization and bacterial degradation.

Liver diseases and hemolytic disorders

In many liver diseases, patients often show signs of pathology only in the final stages. Early diagnosis allows appropriate therapeutic measures to be instituted in good time, avoiding consequential damage and further infection.

Specific liver diseases and identifiable hemolytic disorders include liver disease, (accompanied by jaundice), cirrhosis, urobilinogenuria and bilirubinuria.

Bilirubin test

Bilirubin is a high pigmented compound which is a by-product of hemoglobin degradation. Hemoglobin released after the mononuclear phagocyte (located in the liver and spleen) draws red blood cells from the degraded circulation into its components; iron, protoporfirin and protein. System cells convert protoporphyrin into unconjugated bilirubin that passes through a circulatory system bound to proteins, notably albumin. The kidneys can not filter out this bilirubin because it is attached to the protein; however, it is conjugated with glucuronic acid in the liver to form a water-soluble conjugated bilirubin. This conjugated bilirubin usually does not appear in urine as it is excreted directly from the gut in the gall. Intestinal bacteria reduce bilirubin to urobilinogen, which is then oxidized and excreted with feces such as stercobilin or in urine as urobilin.

Bilirubin conjugation appears in the urine when the normal degradation cycle changes due to bile duct obstruction or when the integrity of renal function is damaged. This allows the release of conjugated bilirubin into the circulation as occurs in hepatitis and liver cirrhosis).

Detection of urinary bilirubin is an early indication of liver disease and whether or not it can be used to determine the cause of clinical jaundice.

Jaundice produced by accelerated red blood cell acceleration does not produce bilirubinuria, because high serum bilirubin is found in unconjugated form and the kidneys can not excrete it.

The test strips use diazotized reactions to detect bilirubin. Bilirubin combines with diazonium salts (2,4-dichloroaniline or 2,6-dichlorobenzene-diazonium-tetrafluoroborate) in acidic medium to produce azo dyes with staining ranging from pink to purple:

• In acid medium

False positive reactions can be caused by unusual pigments in the urine (eg, yellowish orange phenazopyridine metabolites, indican and Lodine (Etodolac) drug metabolites). False negatives can also be given by unsaved samples because bilirubin is photosensitive and oxidizes photos to biliverdin when exposed to light, or glucuronide hydrolysis may result in less reactive free bilirubin.

Urobilinogen Test

Intestinal bacteria convert the conjugated bilirubin secreted by the bile ducts into the intestines to urobilinogen and stercobilinogen. Part of urobilinogen is reabsorbed in the intestine then circulated in the blood to the liver where it is excreted. A small portion of this recirculated urobilinogen is filtered by the kidney and appears in the urine (less than 1 mg/dl of urine). Stercobilinogen can not be absorbed and remains in the intestine.

Any malfunction of the liver reduces its ability to process the recirculated urobilinogen. The remaining excess in the blood is filtered by the kidneys and appears in the urine. When hemolytic disorder occurs the amount of unconjugated bilirubin present in the blood increases causing increased liver excretion of conjugated bilirubin, resulting in an increase in the amount of urobilinogen which in turn leads to increased reabsorption, recirculation and renal excretion.

The reactions occurring on the test strip vary according to the manufacturer, but in reality there are two most commonly used reactions. Some manufacturers use the reaction of Ehrlich (1), in which urobilinogen reacts with p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde (Ehrlich reagent) to produce a color that varies from light to dark pink. Other manufacturers use a diazo coupling (2) reaction that uses 4-methoxybenzene-diazonium-tetrafluoroborate to produce a color that varies from white to pink. The last reaction is more specific.

• (1) The reaction on Multistix (in acidic medium)

• (2) The reaction to Chemstrip (in acidic medium)

A number of substances interfere with Ehrlich's reaction to the Multistix strip: porphobilinogen, indican, salicylic acid p-amino, sulfonamide, methyldopa, procaine and chlorpromazine. The test should be performed at room temperature because the reaction sensitivity increases with temperature. Poorly stored samples can produce false-negative results because urobilinogen undergoes photo oxidation of unreacted urobilin. The formaldehyde used as a preservative produces false negative in both reactions.

Urinary tract infection

Urinary tract infections can be identified including bacteriuria and pyuria.

Nitrite test

The test for nitrites is a rapid screening method for possible asymptomatic infections caused by nitrate-reducing bacteria. Some species of gram-negative bacteria most commonly cause urinary tract infections (Escherichia coli, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Proteus) have enzymes that reduce the nitrate present in the urine to nitrites. This test is a quick screen for possible infection by enteric bacteria, but does not replace the urinalysis test or microscopic examination as a diagnostic tool, or subsequent monitoring because many other microorganisms that do not reduce nitrate (positive bacteria and yeast) may also cause urinary tract infections.

The reactive strip detects nitrites using a Greis reaction in which nitrite reacts in an acid medium with an aromatic amine (para-arsanilic acid or sulfanilamide) to form a diazonium salt which in turn reacts with tetrahydrobenzoquinoline to produce azo pink dye..

• 1) In acid medium

• 2) In acid medium

The nitrite test is not very reliable and the negative result with the presence of clinical symptoms is not uncommon, which means that the test should not be considered conclusive. Negative results can be obtained by the presence of non-nitrate reducing microorganisms. Nitrite-reducing bacteria need to stay in contact with nitrate long enough to produce detectable amounts (first urine produced in the morning or at least with 4-hour urine retention). A large number of bacteria can react to reduce nitrite to nitrogen, which will give false negative results. The use of antibiotics will inhibit bacterial metabolism that causes negative results even if there are bacteria. Additionally some substances such as ascorbic acid will compete with Greis reactions that provide low readings without representing.

Leukocyte Test

It is normal to find up to 3 (sometimes 5) leukocytes per high-power field (40X) in urine samples, with females having slightly higher yields due to vaginal contamination. Higher numbers indicate urinary tract infections. Urine test strip tests for white blood cells detect leukocyte esterase, which is present in azurofilic granules of monocytes and granulocytes (neutrophilic, eosinophilic and basophilic). Bacteria, lymphocytes and epithelial cells of the genitourinary tract do not contain esterase. Neutrophil granulocytes are the leukocytes most often associated with urinary tract infections. Positive tests for leukocyte esterase usually indicate the presence of bacteria and positive nitrite tests (though not always). Infections caused by Trichomonas, Chlamydia and yeast produce leukocyturia without bacteriuria. Inflammation of the kidney tissue (interstitial nephritis) can produce leukocyturia, especially toxic interstitial nephritis with dominant eosinophils.

The test for pure leukocyte esterase is indicative and should not be relied upon only for diagnosis, as it does not replace microscopic or urine culture examination.

Urine strip test reactions are based on the action of leukocyte esterase in catalyzing the hydrolysis of the indolecarboxylic acid ester. The released indoxyl combines with diazonium salts to produce a purple azole dye.

• 1) The reaction is catalyzed by leukocyte esterase

• 2) In acid medium

The esterase reaction takes about 2 minutes. The presence of strong oxidizing agents or formaldehyde can lead to false positives. False-negative results are associated with high protein concentrations (greater than 500 mg/dL), glucose (more than 3 g/dL), oxalic acid and ascorbic acid. Urine with high specific gravity can also cause leukocyte indentation, which can inhibit esterase release.

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Limit detection

The test detection limit is the concentration, where the test begins to change from negative to positive. Although detection limits may vary between urine samples, the detection limit is defined as the concentration of the analyte that produces a positive reaction in 90% of the urine examined.

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Usage for Urine Test strip

Urine test strips can be used in many areas of the treatment chain including checks for routine examination, treatment monitoring, patient self monitoring and/or general preventive treatment.

Screening

Urine test strips are used for screening both in hospitals and in common practice. The purpose of screening is to identify the patient's early identification by examining a large population group. The importance of screening for diabetes and kidney disease among high-risk populations is very high.

Care Monitoring

Monitoring of treatments with the help of urine test strips enables a health professional to examine the outcome of prescribed therapies, and if necessary to introduce any changes into the course of therapy.

Patient Self Monitoring

Self-monitoring with a urine test strip under the guidance of a healthcare professional is an effective method for monitoring the state of the disease. This is especially true for diabetics, where the idea of ​​self-monitoring of metabolic status (determination of glucose and ketones) is self-evident.

General Prevention

Unsolicited self-test has become a popular measure in recent years because various urine test strips are available through pharmacies and online stores. Self-monitoring for urinary tract infections is often a popular example as patients monitor their own urine on a daily basis and discuss the results with their healthcare professionals.

Veterinary

In veterinary medicine, especially in cats and dogs, test strips can be used for urinalysis.

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History of modern test strips

In many cultures, urine has once been regarded as a mystical fluid, and in some cultures it is still considered that way to this day. Its uses include wound healing, body defense stimulation, and examination to diagnose disease.

It was not until the end of the eighteenth century that physicians interested in chemistry turned their attention to the scientific basis of urinalysis and its use in practical medicine.

• 1797 - Carl Friedrich GÃÆ'¤rtner (1772-1850) expressed a desire for an easy way to test the urine for the patient's bedside disease.
• 1797 - William Cumberland Cruikshank (1745-1800) described for the first time the nature of coagulation on heating, exhibited by many urine.
• 1827 - British physician Richard Bright describes the clinical symptoms of nephritis in the "Medical Case Report."
• 1840 - Arrival of chemical urine diagnosis aimed at detecting pathological urinary constituents
• 1850 - Paris Chemist Jules MaumenÃÆ'Â © (1818-1898) developed the first "test strip" when he impregnated a merino wool cloth with "stannous chloride". In the application of a drop of urine and warming over a candle, the strip immediately turns black if the urine contains sugar.
• 1883 - British physiologist George Oliver (1841-1915) markets his "Urine Test Paper"
• approximately. 1900 - Reagent paper becomes commercially available from Helfenberg AG chemical company.
• 1904 - The test for the presence of blood by a wet chemical method using benzidine becomes known.
• approximately. 1920 - Vienna chemist Fritz Feigl (1891-1971) published the technique of "point analysis".
• 1930s - Urine diagnosis makes great progress as reliability increases and test performance becomes easier. â € <â € <
• 1950s - Urine test strips in the sense used today are first made on an industrial scale and are commercially offered.
• 1964 - Boehringer Mannheim company, today Roche, launches its first Combur test strip. Although the test strips have changed little since the 1960s, they now contain a number of innovations. New impregnation techniques, more stable color indicators, and a steady increase in color gradation all contribute to the fact that the use of urine test strips has now been established in clinical and general practice as a reliable diagnostic instrument. The parameter menu offered continues to grow longer in decades.

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Ascorbic Acid Disorder

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is known to interfere with blood oxidation reactions and glucose bearing on general urine test strips. Several strips of urine test are protected against interference with iodate, which removes ascorbic acid through oxidation.

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Urine Sediment

During routine screening, if a positive test for leukocytes, blood, protein, nitrite, and pH more than 7 is identified, urine sediment is microscopically analyzed to further determine the diagnosis.

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Automatic Urinal Test Strip Analyzer

Automatic analysis of urine test strips using automated test strip test strips is a predetermined practice in modern urinalysis. They can measure calcium, blood, glucose, bilirubin, urobilinogen, ketones, leukocytes, creatinine, microalbumin, pH, ascorbic acid and protein.

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References

• Compendium Urinalysis: Urinalysis with a Test Strip. Dr. E F Hohenberger, Dr. H Kimling (2002) http://www.diavant.com/diavant/servlet/MDBOutput?fileId=1392
• Strasinger, Susan K.; In Lorenzo Schaub, Marjorie (2008). "5". AnÃÆ'¡lisis de orina y de los lÃÆ'quidos corporales (in Spanish) (5 ª ed.). Panamericana editorial. pp.Ã, 56-57. ISBN: 978-950-06-1938-7 . Retrieved March 14 2012 .
• Graff, Laurine (1987). "2". AnÃÆ'¡lisis de orina - Atlas Color (in Spanish) (1 ª ed.). Ed. MÃÆ' Â © dica Panamericana. p.Ã, 60. ISBNÃ, 950-06-0841-3 . Retrieved March 14 2012 .
• Wein, Alan J.; Kavoussi, Louis R.; Novick, Andrew C.; Partin, Alan W.; Peters, Craig A. (2007). "3". Campbell-Walsh UrologÃÆ'a (in Spanish) (9 ª ed.). Editorial MÃÆ' Â © dica Panamericana. p.Ã, 104. ISBNÃ, 978-950-06-8268-8 . Retrieved March 14 2012 .

Urinalysis Strip Instruction

Source of the article : Wikipedia